John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism Essay -- Philosophy Morality John

John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism Utilitarianism defined, is the contention that a man should judge everything based on the ability to promote the greatest individual happiness. In other words Utilitarianism states that good is what brings the most happiness to the most people. John Stuart Mill based his utilitarian principle on the decisions that we make. He says the decisions should always benefit the most people as much as possible no matter what the consequences might be. Mill says that we should weigh the outcomes and make our decisions based on the outcome that benefits the majority of the people. This leads to him stating that pleasure is the only desirable consequence of our decision or actions. Mill believes that human beings are endowed with the ability for conscious thought, and they are not satisfied with physical pleasures, but they strive to achieve pleasure of the mind as well. He claims that people seek pleasure and reject pain. There were some moral problems that Mill ran into with his principle. One of the first problems was that actions are right to promote happiness, but wrong as they sometimes tend to produce unhappiness. By moving a victim from a mangled car would be the noble thing to do but what if pulling him from the wreck meant killing him. He intended to produce a happy outcome, but in the end he created an unhappy situation. Utilitarianism declares that men can live just as well without happiness. Mill says yes, but men do not conduct their lives, always seeking happiness. Happiness does not always mean total bliss. Another problem is that some pleasures are more alluring than others. Pleasure does not deal with just quantity, quality is also important. The old saying, â€Å"You ... ...ale. I think that people intend to do good and the people that produce a bad outcome due to their actions have a disorder it is not necessarily and intended evil. I also believe that we do conduct our lives in hope of happiness. We would not run the race if we did not hope to win. Of course there are going to be losers but with out losing you cannot really pleasure the act of winning. Mill did not prove a justification for what happiness is to the whole. I do not think everyone has the same desire for happiness. We each share similarities but all have different ideas of what happiness means. Rap music might offend my grandmother but LL Cool J loves rap music and never intended to offend my grandmother. All of the cases presented in utilitarianism and Mill’s views are very vast. Mill does have some good points but really avoided justifying his theory.

Ethical Arguments for Wal-Mart

Wal-Mart went public in October of 1970. Their IPO was 3,000 shares at a price of $16. 50 per share. By having a smart business model and keeping cost low though a variety of tactics including low employees wages and benefits, Wal-Mart has been able to sustain an incredible rate of growth. Since their IPO Wal-Mart has undergone eleven full 2-1 stock splits. That means that just one share of their IPO has turned into 2,048 current shares. The current market value of Wal-Mart stocks on the NYSE is $62. 0 per share. If an investor bought just one share in 1970 for $16. 50, today that investment would be worth $127,590. 40. In addition to rising stock value, investors receive a quarterly cash dividend payment that was paid out at $0. 2725 per share as of July 2009. People start and invest in businesses to make money. Wal-Mart should concentrate on serving their shareholders by producing profits because the business would not exist in the same capacity without their investment.They have c ertainly done this, keeping their expenses low by paying minimum wage and limiting employee benefits in addition to a number of other influential factors has allowed Wal-Mart to recognize large profits, which serve its shareholders well. By paying employees low wages and limiting benefits in addition to savvy business planning Wal-Mart has grown into an incredibly profitable company. In 2010 they had revenues totaling $408,214,000,000 and more importantly they recognized a profit of $14,335,000,000.Some of this profit is paid out to shareholders in the form of dividends but the vast majority is retained by Wal-Mart and reinvested. These retained earnings allow them to expand and open up stores all over the world. As they expand their operations they will employ more and more people. Wal-Mart has been known to open up stores in rural areas where unemployment rates happen to be especially high. By opening stores in these areas they are lowering unemployment and putting cash into the h ands of people who desperately need it.They currently operate more than 9,600 retail units in 28 countries around the world. They employ 2. 1 million people globally, including almost 1. 4 million in the United States alone. By generating an astounding amount of revenue and keeping there expenses as low as they can make them i. e. paying employees minimum wage and limiting benefits, Wal-Mart is able reinvest profits and open up new retail units that will employ lots of people who desperately need employment.

The Truth About Government Grants

Contrary to what books and TV ads say, the U.S. government is not giving away free grant money. A government grant is not a Christmas present. According to the book American Government Politics, by Jay M. Shafritz, a grant is, A form of gift that entails certain obligations on the part of the grantee and expectations on the part of the grantor. The key word there is obligations. Getting a government grant will get you lot of obligations and not fulfilling them will grant you a lot of legal troubles. In fact, the tantalizing but false lure of â€Å"free† money from the government has spawned some potentially disastrous government grant scams. Few Grants for Individuals Most federal grants are awarded to organizations, institutions, and state and local governments planning major projects that will benefit specific sectors of the population or the community as a whole, for example:   A neighborhood street paving projectA state-wide program to re-train displaced workersA project to attract new businesses to a depressed downtown areaA regional water conservation programA state or county-wide flood control project   Organizations that get government grants are subject to strict government oversight and must meet detailed government performance standards during the duration of the project and funding period of the grant. All project expenditures must be strictly accounted for and detailed audits are conducted by the government at least annually. All granted funds must be spent. Any money not spent goes back to the Treasury. Detailed program goals must be developed, approved and carried out exactly as specified in the grant application. Any project changes must be approved by the government. All project phases must be completed on time. And, of course, the project must be completed with demonstrable success. Failure on the part of the grant recipient to perform under the requirements of the grant can result in penalties ranging from economic sanctions to prison in cases of improper use or theft of public funds. By far, most government grants are applied for and awarded to other government agencies, states, cities, colleges and universities, and research organizations. Few individuals have the money or expertise necessary to prepare adequate applications for federal grants. Most active grant-seekers, in fact, employ full time staffs to do nothing but apply for and administer federal grants. The plain truth is that with federal funding cutbacks and competition for grants becoming more intense, seeking a federal grant always requires a lot of time and potentially a lot of money up front with no guarantee of success. Program or Project Budget Approval Through the annual federal budget process, Congress passes laws making money -- lots of it -- available to the various government agencies for doing major projects designed to assist some sector of the public. The projects may be suggested by the agencies, members of Congress, the president, states, cities, or members of the public. But, in the end, Congress decides which programs get how much money for how long. Finding and Applying for Grants Once the federal budget is approved, funds for the grant projects start to become available and are announced in the Federal Register throughout the year. The official access point for information on all federal grants is the Grants.gov website. Who is Eligible to Apply for Grants? The grant’s entry on the Grants.gov website will list which organizations or individuals are eligible to apply for the grants. The entry for all grants will also explain: How  the grant money can be used;How to apply including detailed contact information;How applications will be reviewed, judged and awarded; andWhat is expected of successful grantees including reports, audits, and performance standards Other Types of Federal Government Benefits While grants are clearly off the table, there are several other federal government benefit and assistance programs that can and do help individuals with many needs and life situations Beware the ‘Free’ Government Grant Scams The illusion that government grants are somehow â€Å"owed† to taxpayers and are thus available for â€Å"free† has inevitably led to numerous dangerous grant-getting scams. Consider the following offer. â€Å"Because you pay your income taxes on time, you have been awarded a free $12,500 government grant! To get your grant, simply give us your checking account information, and we will direct-deposit the grant into your bank account!† So compelling! But as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), the nation’s consumer protection agency warns, such money for nothing† grant offers are almost always scams. Some ads will claim that just about anybody will qualify to get â€Å"free grants† to pay for education, home improvements, business expenses, even credit card balances. Along with email ads, grants scammers often make telephone calls claiming they work for a â€Å"government agency† that has â€Å"discovered† you qualify for a grant. In either case, the claim is the same: your application for a grant is guaranteed to be accepted, and you’ll never have to pay the money back. No matter what the offer’s bait is, the hook is always the same. After congratulating them on their eligibility, the scammer asks their victim for their checking account information so the grant money can be â€Å"deposited directly† into their account or to cover a â€Å"one-time processing fee.† The scammer may even reassure the victims that they will get a full refund if they are not satisfied. Of course, the reality is that while the victims never see any grant money, they do see money disappear from the bank accounts. As the FTC advises, consumers should never give out their bank account information to anyone they don’t know. â€Å"Always keep your bank account information confidential. Don’t share it unless you are familiar with the company and know why the information is necessary,† warns the FTC. Persons who suspect they have been a victim of a government grant scam should file a complaint with the FTC online, or call toll-free, 1-877-FTC-HELP (1-877-382-4357); TTY: 1-866-653-4261. The FTC enters Internet, telemarketing, identity theft, and other fraud-related complaints into Consumer Sentinel, a secure online database available to hundreds of civil and criminal law enforcement agencies in the U.S. and abroad.

The Life Course Perspective The Culture of Living

The life course perspective is a sociological way of defining the process of life through the context of a culturally defined sequence of age categories that people are normally expected to pass through as they progress from birth to death. Included in the cultural conceptions of the life course is some idea of how long people are expected to live and ideas about what constitutes â€Å"premature† or â€Å"untimely† death as well as the notion of living a full life — when and who to marry, and even how susceptible the culture is to infectious diseases. The events of ones life, when observed from the life course perspective, add to a sum total of the actual existence a person has experienced, as it is  influenced by the persons cultural and historical place in the world. Life Course and Family Life When the concept was first developed in the 1960s, the life course perspective hinged upon the rationalization of the human experience into structural, cultural and social contexts, pinpointing the societal cause for such cultural norms as marrying young or likelihood to commit a crime.   As Bengston and Allen posit in their 1993 text Life Course Perspective, the notion of family exists within the context of a macro-social dynamic, a  collection of individuals with a shared history who interact within ever-changing social contexts across ever-increasing time and space (Bengtson and Allen 1993, p.  470). This means that the notion of a family comes from an ideological need or want to reproduce, to develop community, or at the very least from the culture which dictates what a family means to them, particularly. Life theory, though, relies on the intersection of these social factors of influence with the historical factor of moving through time, paired against personal development as an individual and the life-changing events that caused that growth. Observing Behavioral Patterns From Life Course Theory It is possible, given the right set of data, to determine a cultures propensity for social behaviors like crime and even athleticism. Life course theory merges the concepts of historical inheritance with cultural expectation and personal development, which in turn sociologists study to map the course of human behavior given different social interaction and stimulation. In A Life Course Perspective on Immigrant Occupational Health and Well-Being, Frederick T.L. Leong expresses his frustration with psychologists tendency to ignore the time and contextual dimensions and use primarily static cross-sectional designs with decontextualized variables. This exclusion leads to the overlooking of key cultural impacts on behavioral patterns. Leong goes on to discuss this as it relates to immigrants and refugees happiness and the ability to integrate into a new society successfully. In overlooking these key dimensions of the life course, one might miss how the cultures clash and how they fit together to form a cohesive new narrative for the immigrant to live through.

Gender Discrimination Women s Struggle - 2540 Words

Gender Discrimination: Women’s Struggle in the Workplace Richard Weaver The University of Memphis Abstract This research paper examines gender discrimination in the workplace. Gender discrimination is a problem that women face daily in our society. This report will examine the causes of gender discrimination and the affects it has on women in the workplace. It will discuss the glass ceiling concept, how gender discrimination affects women’s family life, and how women’s job performance is considered when discussing gender discrimination. Gender Discrimination: Women’s Struggle in the Workplace This research paper discusses gender discrimination in the workplace in order to shed light on the injustices that women face and to offer suggestions as to how it can be overcome. This paper analyzes and discusses concerns raised by national scholars and provides an evaluation of the problem of gender discrimination and how it is faced by most women in today’s society. The key elements that will be discussed in this paper are the glass ceiling, work-family relationships, and job performance problems that women in the workplace face. Glass Ceiling The glass-ceiling concept is the idea that there is a barrier that keeps women from reaching high positions within their careers. This barrier accounts for the lack of women in high placement positions in jobs. Even though the glass ceiling is an intangible barrier, it presents a real problem thatShow MoreRelatedWomen Struggles By Nina Revoyr1481 Words   |  6 PagesCourse Unit Date Women Struggles in History In her Novel, Southland, 2003, Nina Revoyr captures the struggles that women, especially those of the Asian American descent, have navigated through history. The novel provides interesting material on many fronts including aspects such as sexuality, multiracial and multigenerational family saga. The book is based upon three women characters with the main protagonist being a young Japanese AmericanRead MoreLegal Workplace: Women Overcoming Obstacles Essay1375 Words   |  6 Pagesjobs. Women in law find work even more stressful and difficult to balance with home life because attorneys have high demand jobs. Women attorneys have to find a balance between the demands of practicing law and the demands of their traditional gender roles on the homestead. The legal workplace is unfortunately victim to discrimination, whether discrimination is quid pro quo, hostile work environment, or wrongful termination. However, the legal workplace is changing and adapting to a more gender-n eutralRead MoreFirst Wave Feminism By Betty Friedan1171 Words   |  5 PagesBackground Knowledge: Second-wave feminism refers to the period of feminist activity that focused on social and legal issues of gender equality such as sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights and equal opportunity in education and the workplace. Source 1: The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan In 1963, Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique was published. Friedan discussed the problem that â€Å"lay buried, unspoken† in the minds of the suburban housewife, saying that they were too sociallyRead MoreWomen Workers In Society Have Been And Still Are Deemed1636 Words   |  7 PagesWomen workers in society have been and still are deemed as the weaker and inferior sex in the workforce. This idea is reinforced as women in the workforce are not given the same opportunities to advance in their careers as men or experience the ‘glass ceiling’ effect, women are forced into education or domestic responsibility and are seen to pursue in feminized or feminine sectors of the workforce (Cool, J, 2010). Thus saying, I argue this thinking is validated thorough the practices of gender inequalityRead MoreAmerican Multiculturalism : How Discrimination1432 Words   |  6 Pages American Multiculturalism: How discrimination in the workforce is dispelling a famous myth in America The United States of America has been categorized by many individuals as the â€Å"melting pot.† The nation has acquired this name because is a country that is made up of an extensive variety of people from different cultures. Every single individual whose living in the United States is different in some way or another depending on their culture. This term is primarily used to describe a wide culturalRead MorePositional Bias Is Rampant In All Types Of Businesses.1257 Words   |  6 Pagesdated views is also a factor. One of the female employee said that she was once associated with a company that required women to wear dresses and pantyhose while the men there was no dress code. Women can be professional without dresses and hose just as men can be professional without a tie. Sexual harassment is the danger zone that you might encounter in gender discrimination. That’s why there is a reason why companies there is a reason why companies had implemented policies regardin g sexual harassmentRead MoreAmerica s Struggle For The High937 Words   |  4 PagesAmerica’s Struggle for the High â€Å"C† Ishmael Reed’s play, â€Å"The C Above C Above High C† was written in 1997 with a focus on the desegregation of schools in Arkansas during the 1950’s. Reed portrays life in the 1950’s through the eyes of the famous trumpet player, Louis Armstrong. â€Å"The C Above C Above High C,† goes well beyond the topic of racism and desegregation; providing an insightful look into other forms of discrimination and political corruption. Although racism was a significant issueRead MoreWomen s Rights Of Canada1640 Words   |  7 PagesWomen s Rights in Canada Heritage Fair Essay It has been a long and hard journey in Canada to attain gender equality between men and women. Today, most people are unaware of the discrimination in workplaces, schools, and everyday life. Due to the Famous Five who lead the Persons Case that stated women as official persons, and many heroic individuals who lead the Women’s Suffrage Movement, women now have more opportunities than ever before. The Canadian Labour Movement has helped improve many citizens’Read MoreFeminism is simply a sociological theory, which states that men and women are equal. Feminism is900 Words   |  4 Pagestheory, which states that men and women are equal. Feminism is mainly concerned with giving rights to women by highlighting the numerous ways in which women have rendered to society. Feminist theorists believe in the social, political, and economic equality of genders and believe that each has his own rights as well as duties. They strive to give the oppressed women their full rights that are being taken every day. History of Feminism Feminism first started in the 1830’s as a basic sociological theoryRead MoreEssay on Lack of Economic Equality in Society1326 Words   |  6 Pages effect on all people. Social inequality is deeply and tightly woven throughout the world, defined by race, ethnicity, gender, or age differences. These inherent traits can dictate wealth, education, power or prestige, unfortunately, the female gender is most victimized. Women represent a staggering 70 per cent of the populous living at poverty levels. Gender alone should not be the determining factor regarding placement within society, experience and equal productivity should

Research Ethics In The Intensive Care Unit

Question: Discuss about the Report of Research Ethics In The Intensive Care Unit. Answer: Introduction An Intensive Care unit (ICU) is a specialized department of any hospital, where patients with severe, critical and complicated illnesses are constantly monitored, until their body condition is stabilized. ICUs are also segregated on basis of their specificity, such as the Neonatal ICU, Pediatric ICU, Post surgical ICU, Trauma ICU, Burns ICU, etc. The ICU in Alfred Hospital, Australia, is an advanced unit with extensive facilities for patients and their caregivers. The staff-patient ratio in the ICUs is always higher when compared to the postoperative or recovery wards, as the patients cannot be afforded to be left unattended; even a minute of improper monitoring would lead to mis-management and unwanted complications. Working in the intensive care unit of a hospital can be physically and mentally tiring, as one must always be on his toes, constantly monitoring the patients.(Doric, 2008) There is another dimension to the workload, and that is the ethical aspects that are needed to be taken to be considered, but are often relegated as the least important priorities. Even though ethics are personal tenets, there needs to be an ethical harmony among the staff, so that patient management goes on unhindered. Performing a research in the confines of an ICU is not very easy, but is highly essential to understand the effectiveness of medical care in the critical stages of illness. However, there are a lot of ethical dilemmas which the staffs of the ICU face, which affects their performance badly and tends to question their own motives. This paper analyses the ethical considerations on performing a survey among staff and patient families in the Intensive Care Unit of Alfred Hospital,(The Alfred Hospital, 2014) its relevance to the corresponding issues addressed in the ethics application form, and effective management strategies in obtaining an ethical clearance for those issues. Ethical Implications of ICU Research Upon conducting a study involving the ICU, its staff, and its patients, it is most important to know that the conditions out there are highly dynamic, and things can go from stable to deteriorating in a matter of minutes.(Luce White, 2009) As a result, the staffs are on a high alert, and high on stress. There are also strict unwritten rules on privacy and confidentiality, so the staff might not divulge much to the interviewer. Three major ethical implications are discussed, with their corresponding link in the ethics application mandated by the National Ethics Application Form (NEAF) of the Australian Government.(Australian Government, NHMRC, 2015) The effective strategies which could be employed in order to obtain ethical approval are also discussed. A Conflict of Opinions and Decisions There is always the need to make decisions that can be very difficult to the decider; whether it is admission into the ICU, change in treatment protocols, taking the patent off life support, etc, without the patient having a say on it. Though medical knowledge and logic prevails over emotions, the decision maker is challenged ethically. An honest opinion by the nurse in charge might not go well with the patient, and a professional expertise of the anesthesiologist might be just unacceptable by the surgeon. Sometimes, a conflict of opinions might prove to be a very costly mistake.(Breen, 2001) However, all these issues would be kept highly confidential. This issue co-relates to the section of taking ownership of the research information, in the ethics application. The ownership of the information shall strictly with the researcher, in order to safeguard the privacy of the interviewee. The strategy that shall be employed, in order to obtain ethical clearance for this issue shall be mandating the maintenance of anonymity of the persons interviewed, thus protecting their identity. It shall be reiterated that the decisions made by the staff are the best that they could do in certain circumstances even though it might not have been favorable to the patient.(Nelson, 1997) Ethical Dilemma A staff of the ICU has to deal with either prolonging the vitals of a person by putting him on life support, or taking the person off life support and let Nature do its course. In both cases, the action is dependent on the decisions of the physicians, nurse, and the caregivers of the patient, but the ethical responsibility lies with the staff in charge of the patient. Sometimes, a critically ill patient might have to be discharged from the ICU, in order to accommodate an even more critically ill patient. This sometimes is futile, as the patients health status tends to deteriorate, and sometimes this premature discharge could be fatal. But, that is the way the process is, owing to limited beds in the ICU. This puts the staff under severe ethical pressure, which they have to deal with very often.(Chow, 2014) This issue co-relates to the question Is there a risk that the dissemination of results could cause harm of any kind to individual participants - whether their physical, psychological, spiritual, emotional, social or financial well-being, or to their employability or professional relationships - or to their communities? from the ethics application. The strategy that shall be employed, in order to obtain ethical clearance for this issue shall be avoiding probing into details which cause unwanted sensitive reactions and repercussions from the interviewee. For example, a patient with no caregivers, it is the responsibility of the staff to decide on his stay in the ICU, and to introduce or remove life support if needed. However, this action might have legal implications, which might be dangerous for the staff and the hospital as well. Thus, no question that is sensitive to the point of discomfort shall be asked, and the integrity of the participant would be maintained.(Sprung Cohen, 2003) Encountering Psychological Stresses Any hospital staff is exposed to death so much, that they might appear to be immune to it.(Azoulay, 2005) But on the contrary, constant exposure to patents dying causes a psychological burden, sometimes leading to guilt if they had had a chance a chance to handle the patient. Usually, this leads to an ethical dilemma when presented with a patient having a similar condition in the future; whether treating him the same way would risk his life, and whether treating him differently would cause newer complications.(Oerlemans et al., 2015) This issue is related to the section of the ethics application, which deals with obtaining willing consent of the participant. Often, the medical staff tends not to refuse consent to a researcher, as they feel obligated to the medical fraternity. However, this leads to several issues affecting the staff. The strategy that shall be employed, in order to obtain ethical clearance for this issue shall be asking questions to the participants only when they are willing to respond, and not make it an obligation to answer. For instance if a physician had erred on a drug dosage, and the patient had succumbed to it, he must not be made to talk about it unless he volunteers to.(Osmon, 2004) The interview shall be direct, and shall be stopped on the event of the staff feeling uncomfortable on answering them. Taking a closer look at all the three issues, it is evident that they all point to one trait decision making. The staff of the ICU, or any hospital staff has to be rational and quick in their decision making process, which would save them from many complications later. However, ethical issues are bound to crop up even with good decision making, as the patient concerned is unable to provide any input except his physical status, which is reduced to just numbers. Hence, confronting the staff on their stance in the ICU must be done only if they consent to it. Conclusion Ethics is the most important component in life, with ethical decision making being an integral part of life. In the ICU, where critical care is mandated, a lot of ethical dilemmas are bound to occur; this affecting the staff concerned. Interestingly, these issues carry a low ethical risk, when compared to certain other cases dealing with criminal and legal issues. It must be understood that the staff in the ICU work to their full capacity, going beyond their means to save the patients life and stabilize his vitals. Sometimes, it is beyond their control that mistakes happen, yet they feel morally bound to take responsibility for the issues. In short, healthcare professional become second victims of their own practice. As a researcher, it is important that the research be carried out considering all ethical implications and considerations. Questioning the staff on the grounds of an interview must be done with great care, as there would be many sensitive issues, and answering them would cause several repercussions, as several issues are bound by confidentiality.(Patten, 2007) On a positive note, it is research that makes the world aware of the ethical issues faced by the staff. Thus, it must be used wisely and with discretion, if a productive gain is expected out of the research. Maintaining high levels of ethics in performing research would ensure quality research and would provide to the outside world a good understanding of the ICU and its immense ethical content. References Australian Government, NHMRC, 2015. National Ethics Application Form (NEAF). [Online] Available at: https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/health-ethics/national-ethics-application-form-neaf [Accessed 03 August 2016]. Azoulay, E..P.F.., 2005. Risk of post-traumatic stress symptoms in family members of intensive care unit patients. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 171(9), pp.987-94. Breen, C.M., 2001. Conflict associated with decisions to limit life sustaining treatment in intensive care units. Journal of general internal medicine, 16(5), pp.283-89. Chow, K., 2014. Ethical Dilemmas in the Intensive Care Unit. Journal of Hospice and Palliative Nursing , 16(5), pp.256-60. Doric, A.G..D.E.L.T.K.N., 2008. The impact of an ICU liaison nurse service on patient outcomes. Critical Care and Resuscitation, 10(4), p.294. Luce, J.M. White, D.B., 2009. A History of Ethics and Law in the Intensive Care Unit. Critical Care Clinicians, 25(1). Nelson, R.M., 1997. ETHICS IN THE INTENSIVE CARE UNIT - Creating an Ethical Environment. Critical Care Clinics, 13(3), pp.691701. Oerlemans, A.J., Sluisveld, N.v. Leeuwen, E.S.v., 2015. Ethical problems in intensive care unit admission and discharge decisions: a qualitative study among physicians and nurses in the Netherlands. BMC Medical Ethics, 16(9). Osmon, S..H.C.B..D.W., 2004. Reporting of medical errors: an intensive care unit experience. Critical care medicine, 32(3), pp.727-33. Patten, M.L...B.R.R., 2007. Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials. Pyrczak Publishers. Sprung, C.L. Cohen, S.L., 2003. End-of-life practices in European intensive care units: the Ethicus Study. Journal of American Medical association, 290(6), pp.790-97. The Alfred Hospital, 2014. The Alfred Intensive Care Unit. [Online] Available at: https://www.alfredicu.org.au/ [Accessed 3 August 2016].

Svante August Arrhenius Essays - Panspermia, Svante Arrhenius

Svante August Arrhenius Svante August Arrhenius was born at Uppalsa, Sweden, on February 19, 1859 His intelligence and creativity were apperent nt from an early age--he taught himself to read when he was three Although credi ted with many scientific innovations, he remains best known for his ionic theory of solutions, For which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1903 Arrhenius henius died in Stockholm on October 2, 1927 Science is a human endeavor subject to human frailties and governed by personalities, politics, and prejudice ces. One of the best illustrations of the often bumpy path of the advancement of scientific knowledge is the story of Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius. When Arrhenius henius began his doctorate at the University of Uppsala around 1880, he chose to study the passage of electricity through solutions. This was a problem that had baffled scientists for a century, The first experiments had been done in the 17 70s by Cavendish, who corn pared the conductivity of salt solutions with that of rain water, using his own physiological reaction to the electric shocks he rece ived! Arrhenius had an array of instruments to measure electric current, but the process of carefully weighing, meas uring, and recording data from a multitude of experiments was a tedious one. After his long series of experimerits were performed, Arrhenius quit his laboratory bench and returned to his country home to try to formulate a model that could account for his data, He wrote, "I got the idea in the night of the 17th of May in the year 1883, and I could not s leep that night until I had worked through the whole problem." His idea was that ions were responsible for conducting electricity through a solution. B ack at Uppsa]a, Arrhenius took his doctoral dissertation containing the new theo ry to his advisor, Professor Cleve, an eminent chemist and the discoverer of the elements holmlum and thulium. Cleve's unlnterested response was what Arrhenius had expected. It was in keeping with CIeve's resistance to new ideas he had not even accepted Mendeleev's periodic table, introduced ten years earlier. It is a long standing custom that before a doctoral degree is granted the disse rtation must be defended before a panel of professors. Although this procedure i s still followed at most universities today, the problems are usually worked out in private with the evaluating professors before the actual defense. However, w hen Arrhenius did it, the disserta tion defense was an open debate, which could be rancorous and humiliating. Knowing that it would be unwise to antagonize his professors, Arrhenius downplayed his convictions about his new theory as he de t ended his dissertation. His diplomacy paid off: he was awarded his degree, albei t reluctantly, as the prolessors still did not believe his model and considered him to be a marginal scientist, at best. Such a setback could have ende d his scientific career, but Arrhenius was a crusader; he was determined to see his theory triumph. Recognizing his low credibility in his home coun try, he sen t his dissertation first to Rudolf Clausius, a German seientist who had fimnulat ed the second law of thermodynamics, but Clausius wasn't interested. He next app roached Lothar Meyer, another German scientist who had gained prominence for his work on the periodicity of the clements, but Meyer was also unresponsive. Final ly, Arrhcnius found the right champion in Wilhelm Ostwald, a German profes sor o f chemistry at Riga. Ostwald, already known as a defender of revo lutionary chem ical causes, fully accepted the idea that reactions in solu tion often involve i ons. In 1885 Arrhenius began work ing in Ostwald's laboratory, continui ng his research on ions. Reading everything he could find on the sub jeer, he ca me across a research paper written by a Dutch scientist, Jacobus van't Heir, whi ch was particularly helpful in placing the ionic theory on firmer gnound. In 1887 Arrhenius went to Amsterdalm to nicer van'l Heft At 22 years of age, van't Help had postulated the existence of stereochemistry; that is, that atoms in molecules have definite relative positions in space. This theory was initially criticized harshly, and van't Heft, aided by Ostwald, had to fight to have it accepted. The ionic theory was yet another unaccepted theory for which both Ostwald and van't Heft' would extend their support. By the time Arrhenius returned from Amsterdam, Ostwald had moved to Leipzig, where he had be come professor of chemistry. It was there that Ostwald and Anhenius put together